The Relationship Between the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh and the Body Image

Chapter 1: Introduction · 1,136 words

Understanding the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh is important to the results of this study. It is, therefore, necessary to give a little background in Jewish Law. In Judaism, there exist, among others, constructs of purity and impurity. The words "pure" or "impure" should not be confused with the words "clean" or "unclean" in the modern English vocabulary, though they are used interchangeably in English Bible translations.

In the time of Temple worship--i.e. from the receiving of the Torah-Law on Mt. Sinai about 1,000 B.C.E.-- both men and women had to be "pure" to participate in the service. The same purity also had to be attained by a married Jewish couple in order to have a sexual relationship.

How did one become impure? The touching of a dead animal or human rendered one impure. Any body emissions-- septic wounds, menstruation, nocturnal emission--were among the occurrences that brought on a state of impurity. To become pure, there existed, and still exist certain prescribed methods. The method used to induce purity depended on what caused the state of impurity. For example, in the case of one made impure by touching a dead animal, the party had to wait seven "clean" days, days in which there was no recurrence of touching the dead; and then on the evening of the seventh day (technically, the eighth day, as in Jewish Law the day begins at sunset), the person bathed, removed all scabs and foreign material, rings, earrings, etc., manicured his/her nails, combed hair (to preclude the presence of knots), and immersed.

Upon seeing the first signs of the menstrual flow, a husband and wife begin the separation period. They sleep in separate beds and do not engage in any form of physical contact. This period includes the five to seven days (depending on the individual cycle--may be longer but never shorter) when there is a blood flow and seven "clean" days--days in which the woman checks that there is no spotting and that the menses has stopped. The night of the seventh day she begins the purification ritual which culminates in the immersion in the Mikveh-ritual bath. From then until the onset of the next menstrual flow the separation period is over and physical contact between husband and wife is again the norm.

It is expected that this study will shed some light on one area of self concept, known as body image, by showing its relationship to observance of the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh (3; 6; 12; 32), and suggesting that this relationship has certain implications that might benefit an even wider group than just the Jewish population.

How one feels about oneself, one's picture of an ideal self, is so important that an entire lifetime may be spent actualizing that self image. In discussing the "drives" that compel man to act and react in certain fashions throughout his life, Maslow listed esteem immediately after such important drives as eating, shelter, and love. (33)

Many studies have been carried out examining what is self image, self concept, and self theory. For example, Rogers defines self concept, one of the constructs of his Client Centered Therapy approach, as:

. . . the organized consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perception of the "I" or "me" and the perceptions of the relationships of "I" or "me" to others and the various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these perceptions. (43:200)

Other studies have discovered that self images and self concepts have a direct relationship with some psychosomatic and psychological problems. The patient suffering from Anorexia Nervosa is an example of such a psychological and psychosomatic disease. The body image of such a patient is not at all congruent with reality. This patient may be literally starving herself to death because she "sees" herself as overweight. Among the goals in the treatment of Anorexia Nervosa is the correlation of perceived body image with reality. If a means were found to correct the inaccurate and therefore near fatal discrepancy in body image, the treatment of Anorexia Nervosa might be greatly facilitated. (14; 51)

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

It is the purpose of this study to investigate the relationship of the performance of the Ritual of Mikveh and the body image of Jewish Women.

HYPOTHESIS

Jewish women who observe and perform the Ritual of Mikveh will have a higher score on an instrument testing body image than those Jewish women who do not perform this ritual.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study is limited in the following ways:

The study is limited to 30 Jewish women who volunteered to take this test from the Springfield-Holyoke-West Hartford areas.

The subjects are between the ages of 20-53 years.

The subjects are all married.

The subjects are all within the annual income range of $15,000-$35,000.

Body image scores incorporate any limitations in the Epstein Self Report Inventory and the Epstein Self-ratings of Attributes.

Generalization beyond the population of the study should be done with care, because representativeness has not been established.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The ability to control body image, to change it significantly, has been the goal of many studies concerning obesity. (36; 51) It has also concerned those working with patients suffering from Anorexia Nervosa (Goodsitt, 4), as well as those working with amputees. (42; 47) Research that affords further insight into ways of altering body image might be of use to those concerned with the aforementioned psychological psychosomatic diseases. This study is designed to produce data with this end in mind.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Self Concept: Self concept is defined as the individual as he perceives himself, or a set of theories or hypotheses concerning oneself. (Wylie, 60)

Body Image: The term body image refers to Epstein's construct in which it is one of seven "theories" that make up the self concept. For the purposes of this study, body image is divided into three components: health, functioning, and appearance. (10)

Ritual of Mikveh: The performance of the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh requires that a married woman wait seven days after the cessation of her menstrual flow and on the evening of the seventh day, after bathing and removing all nail polish, rings, false teeth, contact lenses, or other foreign substances, immerse in the Mikveh-ritual bath. (Karo, 23)

Mikveh-Ritual Bath: The Mikveh is the technical term for a pool of water. Rain or spring water is collected in a prescribed manner (Talmud, 55) and mixed in specific proportions with regular tap water.

Purity: For the purposes of this study, purity is defined as the state of being of a Jewish married woman after Mikveh immersion until the onset of the next menstrual period. (Karo, 23)

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Chapter 2: Review Of Literature · 2,492 words

This chapter will present a survey of previous studies in the area of body image, the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh, and the relationship between them.

BODY IMAGE

A person's body image is the mental picture he possesses of his physical body. This picture has been developed through his experiences with the body and the attitudes and feelings these experiences have created. (Breckenridge and Vincent, 35)

A review of the literature on body image constituted a major contribution to a study by Sullivan in 1965. Her findings, in addition to her bibliography, were most useful in helping bring the current review up to date. (54)

The first account of body image was by Ambroise Pere, a 16th century surgeon. (Kolb, 25) However, it was not until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that any significance was given to the concept. At that time psychiatrists and neurologists were searching for an explanation to body distortions of the schizophrenic and the phantom limb phenomenon. (Sullivan, 54:35) They began to see that these problems might stem from the individual's perception of his body. (Head, 16)

Among the first to attach significance to the body image, in the late 19th century, was Bonnier. He was a French neurologist who made systematic observations of the body distortions of his patients. He also made some suggestions as to the importance of this phenomenon. (Fisher and Cleveland, 11)

It would seem as if Freud (late 19th and early 20th centuries), with his theories concerning castration complex in boys and penis envy in girls, demonstrated an appreciation of the problems that might arise through body image disturbances. In both the theories mentioned, an assumed difficulty for the patient arises when there is an inability, for whatever reason, to find congruence between perceived body image and reality. His theory suggested that when a boy perceives his physical manhood threatened, his behavior reflects this troubled emotional state. Further, Freud posited that from childhood, a girl first assumes that all humans are born with a penis and somehow, for one reason or another, she was born without one. This attitude forms the basis of the girl's envious feelings of the male organ and manifests itself in a dissatisfaction with her own body. The highest point in the expression of this dissatisfaction is the wish that she also should be a boy. In both the phenomenon of penis envy and castration complex, in the mind's eye the individual possessed a body characteristic not substantiated by reality. (Brill, 6)

Another example of work in this area is Adler's idea of masculine protest in women which dealt with the woman's efforts to integrate wish fulfillment with reality. Adler theorized that a woman who protests her perception of the social stereotypes of womanhood may wish to be transformed into a man. Vaginism, sexual anesthesia, and many well-known neurotic manifestations supposedly originate from this tendency. (Ansbacher and Ansbacher, 2:49) Masculine protest in women differs from penis envy in that the former may cause a woman to try and become man-like, as for example, affecting men's clothing fashions or not "feeling" like a woman. A woman suffering from the latter might hate herself and wish to have been a man, these desires manifesting themselves in some form of unconscious behavior. Both Freud and Adler sought ways to explain behavior that theoretically resulted from incongruence of body perception.

As more research was carried out in the area, body image became more sharply defined--the broadest definition being the mental picture that an individual has of his own body. (11; 12; 49; 60) Some literature refers to elements of the concept,- for example, the architectural aspects: postural model, body schema or body cathexis, and the manner in which the individual regards parts of his body. (12; 16; 22; 25; 48) The broad self image concept is most comprehensive since it includes all the above definitions.

In maintaining that the body image is not an isolated part of the individual's existence but rather a part of every experience, Schilder extended the importance of the body to develop the broadest concept of body image. Further, he maintained that only through an understanding of body image can we fully understand the personality. (49)

The human experience begins at birth. (Leboyer, 25) From infancy the self concept, and more specifically the body image, is in a state of flux. It does not remain static, rather it is constantly being redefined and refined by contact with the world. (11; 19; 34; 49; 53) The three main factors that contribute to this state of flux can be summarized as: (1) tactile sensations, (2) kinesthetic sensations, and (3) a cultural value scale. (Sullivan, 54:40)

Tactile sensations begin when the infant learns to differentiate the various components of his physical self and his environment. (Piaget, 40) He discovers the borders of his body--where his hands end and the crib starts--and using his fingers, he goes on to discover his mouth and toes, etc. The kinesthetic sensations are "derived from the various movements of the individual during his lifetime." (Sullivan, 54:43) Although these movements will have varied effects on the body image, they are necessary for its development.

Cultural determiners of body image are incorporated into the child's self system. At the beginning, this occurs through parent-child interaction. (33; 53) Helper found that as the child matures, he develops self regard which may resemble the level of regard which his parents have for him. (17) This self regard might be said to include his regard for his body as a part of his greater self.

As he grows, so too does the circle of people with whom he has contact. In the area of social interaction (other than parent-child), studies have suggested that one's self concept is shaped through interaction with others (34; 57) More recently, in discussing the development of self concept in a person devoid of human contact, Sawry and Telford expressed the belief that only a concept of physical self would be in evidence. The individual would be able to discriminate "between himself and the rest of the world, but the various extensions of the self would depend upon the reflected evaluations of other people."

This statement gives expression to the importance of social interaction and valuing for normal development of a sense of self. Body image is likewise affected by social interaction. (Schilder, 49) For example, college men and women accepted the general stereotyping of man as more competent in the fields of science and mathematics. Examination of the aptitude scores and college grades showed this assumption to be inaccurate, girls in many cases outscoring boys in the areas mentioned. (McKee and Sherriffs, 30) This finding, as well as others illustrating the acceptance by both male and female subjects of the stereotype, illustrate the mind's predilection for integrating material that is not congruent with reality. (28; 38)

Research that dealt more directly with body characteristics and their relationship to self concept was carried out by Jourard and his colleagues. Their work lends some support to the theory that body characteristics which are negatively valued by subjects may be expected to undermine the general self regard. For instance, if a woman feels that small feet are a positive physical attribute and she has big feet, she would tend to have a high investment of emotion in that area (body-cathexis). Accordingly, she might have a lower regard for herself in general as a result of this physical fact. (22; 60) It might, therefore, be concluded that sexual stereotyping, the individual's perception of what his or her body should look like, along with parental interaction, are involved in the development of an image of physical self.

Religion is another form of socialization and interaction which incorporates norms and values of its own. In examining the relationship between observance of the tenets and rituals of a specific religion and self concept development, it was found that socio-cultural structure, such as a religious rite, does not shape some unique attitude automatically. Rather, it is assimilated by the individual according to his desire and deep psychological tendencies. (Jaspard, 21)

Another study by McMillen examined the apparent impact of non-compliance with religious rules, or transgressions, on the self concept. The results supported the hypothesis that positive feedback following a transgression would lead to less compliance than would the absence of such feedback. It was also found that compliance following a transgression would be reduced if high self esteem manipulation preceded the compliance request.

When the subjects found that they did not need to comply with the religious rules to feel high self esteem (positive regard), the need to comply with the rules became extinguished. Their perception of an ideal self was no longer dependent on observance or compliance with the religious rules. These results tend to support the thesis that religious individuals use the religion and the positive reinforcement of its observance to define an ideal self.

Throughout much of the literature in the areas of self concept, self image, and body image, the implication exists that what is true for self concept is true for body image. Body image is indeed an aspect of self concept but demands to be an area of study in itself. In the study and treatment of psychological and psychosomatic diseases, medical doctors and psychologists examine the effects of body image distortions. These diseases include: phantom limb disturbances of amputees, obesity, and Anorexia Nervosa. (13; 14; 27; 36; 42; 52)

In a study of a special camp program for obese boys, it was discovered that though body image showed significant positive changes as a result of the camp program, self concept remained unchanged. Rohrbacher concluded from this finding that body image, in particular, and not self concept in general plays an important role in the treatment of obesity. (4k)

Another study found that in obese children, a conflict existed between perception of physical self and reality. Out of fourteen chubby kindergarteners who were asked to identify her body build when shown pictures of chubby, average, and thin children, only one correctly identified her own body build. However, when shown pictures of peers, nine out of the fourteen plump subjects identified the pictures correctly. (27; 36)

A more obvious example of this form of incongruence was found when six obese subjects who reduced manifested a "phantom body size" phenomenon after reducing. They perceived themselves as if they had lost no weight at all. (Glucksman and Hirsch, 13)

Similarly, in a patient suffering from Anorexia Nervosa, altering of body image is a factor. The disease is defined as:

. . . a psychological disorder characterized by voluntary, self-initiated dieting which gradually exceeds the limits of conscious control, leading to a marked weight loss, overactivity, and a fear of eating, with a compulsive preoccupation with food, weight, and dieting which is expressed in a never-ending coercive and manipulative struggle with the environment over eating. (Goodsitt, 14::100)

The patient has a delusional body image which she vehemently defends as being normal. She is unable to fully perceive herself as she is; she sees herself as obese while in fact she is on the verge of starvation. (Goodsitt, 14)

Schizophrenic patients also suffer from body image problems. In a recent study, it was found that a positive correlation existed between improved body image and behavioral changes of schizophrenic female patients. (Spire, 52)

In the reviewed literature dealing with psychological and psychosomatic problems, it might be concluded that the attainment of a positive body image--one that is congruent with reality--is an important factor in recovery from such ailments.

RITUAL OF MIKVEH

The ritual of Mikveh takes place at the culmination of a separation period that begins with the sighting of the menstrual flow by a married (Jewish) woman. (Silverman and Rosenbaum, 50:XV:19) During the period of separation, the husband and wife sleep in separate beds and do not engage in any form of physical contact. This period includes the five to seven days (depending on the individual cycle it may be longer but never shorter) when there is a blood flow, and seven "clean" days--days which the woman checks that there is no spotting and that the menses has stopped. The night of the seventh day, she begins the purification ritual which culminates in the immersion in the Mikveh-ritual bath. From then on until the onset of the next menstrual flow, the separation period is over and physical contact between husband and wife is again the norm. (Karo, 23)

Mikveh is the technical term meaning "pool" of water. Rain and/or spring water, collected in a prescribed manner and mixed in specific proportions with regular tap water, form the ritual bath. (Talmud, 55) Any natural area of water (where fish can live), such as the ocean, lakes, etc., could also be used for immersion. However, such natural Mikvaot (plural form) are not always available or practical, i.e. in winter or in landlocked areas, so the constructed ritual bath proves to be most important and convenient for the performance of this ritual.

To emphasize the importance of the observance of this ritual to the Jewish woman, Mikveh immersion is included as one of three transgressions whose punishment is death at childbirth. They are: (1) not lighting the candles that usher in the Sabbath, (2) not tithing the bread baked at home--Challah, and (3) not observing the ritual of Mikveh. (Talmud, 55) It is suggested that this punishment is not to be taken in the literal sense, but rather in the figurative sense, "Death in childbirth" is used to emphasize the importance of the preceding injunctions to the Jewish woman. (Maimonedes, 32)

The ritual of Mikveh, a Mitzvah (injunction) most generally observed by the religious woman, specifically deals with the body. Once a month the woman is "in touch” with her physical self. The onset of her menstrual cycle augurs the temporary end to sexual relations with her husband. The counting of seven days after the cessation of the flow, and finally the bathing, removing of all foreign objects, i.e. nail polish, contact lenses, false teeth, and even loose scabs, before immersion in the Mikveh itself, all cause a woman to be aware of her body. We all bathe and wash ourselves, but these acts become habitualized and automatic. Once a month, the observant Jewish woman breaks the normal bathing pattern and initiates a different washing ritual. It is at this time that it might be assumed she is in a state of heightened awareness of her body in a truly physical sense.

To date, no studies have been made of the psychological implications of Mikveh observance and body image. However, the existence of such a relationship has been suggested in a previous unpublished study by the present writer.

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Chapter 3: Procedures · 381 words

SUBJECTS

The population of this study was 30 married Jewish women in the Holyoke-Springfield-West Hartford area. The subjects ranged in age from 20 to 53 years. All were in the income range of $15,000-$35,000 per annum. Their names and telephone numbers were ascertained by selecting every 10th name on the membership lists of the Women's Division of the Mikveh of Greater Springfield, the Women's Division of the Mikveh of Hartford, and the Jewish Community Centers of both Springfield and Hartford. When the party was either unwilling or unable to participate, the next name down the list was chosen. They were then verbally approached, either by telephone or in person, and requested to participate in a master's thesis project. None of the subjects was told explicitly what the study was about, to preclude any bias on her part. Members of the Women's Division of the Mikveh of Greater Springfield and West Hartford, who completed the test, became the "Mikveh observing" Group A. Members of the Jewish Community Centers of Springfield and West Hartford, who completed the test, became the "non-observing" Group B.

INSTRUMENTS

The Epstein two-part test, Self Report Inventory and Self Ratings of Attributes, was used for the purpose of this study. (See Appendixes A and B.) The test was constructed in 1972. Homogeneous scales were constructed through standard procedures of item analysis, yielding a split-half reliability coefficient for the total scale of .95.

Construct validity showed that two factors accounted for 59 percent of total variance. The population of the Epstein Self Report Inventory consisted of 344 male and female college students. (Epstein, 10)

COLLECTION OF DATA

The subjects were contacted either by telephone or in person. The answer sheets were color coded so that only the researcher knew which group was which, thereby avoiding any reaction by the subjects to the groups to which they were assigned or to the subject matter of the study. The subjects were requested to mail the answer sheets back to the researcher in the stamped self-addressed envelope that was provided. A follow up, to check if the test was completed and to thank for participation if an affirmative answer was received, took place two weeks after the initial test distribution.

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Chapter 4: Analysis Of Data · 969 words

This chapter will discuss the statistical procedures used for analysis of data, results obtained, and the discussion of these results. The analysis is divided into three parts (1) mean scores, (2) variance, (3) investigation of data using the ANOVA, analysis of variance using the F test to the .05 level of significance.

The tests were scored by the use of the scoring key, the negative attributes being subtracted from the positive ones, giving a real or negative numerical score. For example, in the area of General Self Esteem, a positive answer would be: “All in all, I'm quite satisfied with who I am.” A negative answer would be: “I am a great big nobody.”

Test scores were obtained in the area of General Self Esteem and Body Image. The Body Image scores were broken down into the areas of Health, Functioning, and Appearance. (Epstein, 10)

GENERAL SELF ESTEEM

The test scores of General Self Esteem, a part of the Epstein Self Report Inventory, showed Group B (non-observing) to have a mean score lower but a variance higher than Group A (observing). This difference was tested and found to be not statistically significant. (See Table 1.)

Table 1: Summary of Analysis of Variance of General Self Esteem Scores Between Women Who Do (Group A) and Do Not (Group B) Observe the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh

In the General Self Esteem section of the test, Group B (those Jewish women who do not observe the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh) had lower mean scores than Group A (those Jewish women who do observe the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh). Although the difference was not statistically significant, as noted above, it does tend to question the findings of McMillen. 31 As discussed in the second chapter, McMillen examined an apparent relationship between non-compliance with religious rules (transgressions) and self concept. The results of his study noted that compliance with religious rules would be reduced if the subject received high self esteem feedback prior to the compliance request. The present study, while not contradicting McMillen's findings, does not produce sufficient evidence to support the reasonable hypothesis that compliance with a religious ritual indicates the presence of high self esteem.

Table 2 shows the results of the test examining Body Image. The combined score was also broken down into its components of: Health, Functioning, and Appearance. These are operationally defined through the questions on the test. (See Appendix C.)

Table 2: Summary of Analysis of Variance of Body Image Scores

HEALTH

In examining the results of the tests in the area of Health, Group A had a mean score of 1.86 points above Group B. However, Group B showed a standard deviation of .06 above that of Group A. These data seem to indicate that Group A is more homogenous and Group B more heterogenous in make up. One might conclude that observant Jewish women are more similar to each other in their attitude to their health and physical well being, in particular and possibly also in a more general sense, than non-observant Jewish women. This homogeneity tends to be borne out, in fact, as observant Jews--men and women alike--all observe the rituals in a prescribed fashion. Non-observant Jews, on the other hand, observe or do not observe varying rituals as is their wont.

FUNCTIONING

Group B's mean was 1.14 points above Group A's, but the variance of Group A was 1.25 points above that of Group B. These data did not go in the predicted direction. One might have assumed that since Group A had a higher total Body Image score than Group B, the three component scores would show a similar tendency. While Group A felt better about the health of their bodies, they did not feel they possessed a high level of physical endurance. The direction of these results should be examined more deeply in future research.

APPEARANCE

The mean score for Group A was 5.73, while the mean score of Group B was 4.66, a difference of 1.07. The variance for Group A, however, was 2.27, while that of Group B was 3.57, a difference of .83. The observant group tended to find themselves physically attractive, more so than the non-observant group. These results tend to support Jourard's research in the area of Body Cathexis. He found that body characteristics which are positively valued by subjects may be expected to contribute to higher general self regard. (22) Consequently, since Group A tended to score higher in Appearance than Group B, their higher score in General Self Esteem might be explained.

The differences of all the variances were tested using ANOVA, or the F test to the .05 level of significance. An F value between 2.39 and 2.43 had to be obtained in order to be significant; in all cases, p > .05 and therefore, though the data were in the predicted direction, they were not found to be statistically significant.

The conclusion drawn, then, is that no significant relationship was found to exist between body image and the observance of the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh.

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Chapter 5: Summary And Conclusions · 436 words

SUMMARY

The purpose of this study was to determine if any relationship existed between the observance of the Jewish Ritual of Mikveh and body image. The Epstein Self-Report Inventory was given to 30 Jewish women in the Holyoke, Springfield, and West Hartford areas. The women were divided into two groups of 15 persons each. Group A was those women who observed and performed the ritual; Group B was those women who did not observe or perform the ritual. Scores for general self esteem and body image--composed of health, functioning, and appearance--were tallied; and the differences in variances were tested using the F test, analysis of variance, to examine if significance was obtained.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in the scores were shown to be in the predicted direction but not significantly so. Group A scored above Group B in body image and in general self-esteem. The F values obtained were 1.30 for body image and 1.47 for general self esteem. To find significance, a value between 2.49 and 2.43 had to be obtained (p > .05). Though the differences were not enough for prediction, their direction is consistent with the hypothesis in this uninvestigated area.

No research had been carried out to date examining the relationship between a ritual that involved changing bathing habits--specifically, the Jewish ritual of Mikveh-- and body image. The direction of the data obtained does tend to imply that being "in touch" with one's body might relate positively with body image scores.

RECOMMENDATIONS

It is recommended that further research should be undertaken to determine if:

Testing the same hypothesis with three groups: (a) Jewish women who observe the ritual of Mikveh, (b) Jewish women who do not observe the ritual of Mikveh, and (c) Gentile women who do not observe the ritual of Mikveh would give different results. Possibly the cultural similarity of the two groups tested in this study made finding a significant difference impossible.

If a similar type of bathing ritual were designed, would a group of obese patients score higher on a test on body image than a control group of obese patients who would not bathe in a ritualized fashion?

Using a similar type of bathing ritual, a difference in body image scores might be obtained between two groups of amputees suffering "phantom limb" pains--those performing a ritualized bathing process showing an improvement in body image over those in the group not similarly involved.

Would anorexic patients who perform a ritualized bathing process show significantly improved body images over those patients suffering from Anorexia Nervosa who do not perform this ritual?

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Appendix A: Epstein Self-Report Inventory Part I · 941 words

Please note how accurately the following items describe you. Do not mark this form, but the IBM sheet provided. Make sure to use a soft lead pencil (#2 or less). Work rapidly. First impressions are as good as any. Use the following scale.

1 (Completely False) / 2 (Mainly False) / 3 (Uncertain or Neither True nor False) / 4 (Mainly True) / 5 (Completely True)

I am quick to learn new things.

I have been endowed with a strong and healthy body.

My emotions rarely get out of hand.

I have always been courteous, even to people who have been disagreeable to me.

I have an inferiority complex.

I am well coordinated physically.

I can handle almost any important problem I am faced with.

I have never minded admitting that I don't know something.

I have more physical endurance than most.

I am a great big nobody.

I am not easily dominated by others.

I sometimes say things that are not completely true.

I regard myself as a highly ethical person.

I do not like the way I look.

I sometimes doubt that anyone who really mattered to me could love me the way I am.

I have gossiped at times.

I am a capable person.

I am bothered by my lack of self-control.

No one loves or cares about me.

I have never felt that I was punished without cause.

I get physically run down easily.

All in all, I'm quite satisfied with whom I am.

I have (or am confident that someday I will have) a close, warm relationship with someone who understands me.

I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own.

I like the way I look.

I feel as if nothing I do is very good.

I often worry about my physical health.

What others think of me does not bother me.

I tend to assume that people will not like me.

I am not a well-coordinated person.

I have little respect for myself.

I have never felt like saying something that would hurt someone's feelings.

I tend to be good at physical activities, such as dancing or sports.

I frequently do things that I later feel guilty about.

I give in to others too easily.

At elections I have sometimes voted for people about whom I know very little.

In general, I don't have to worry about my health.

My values need straightening out.

I do not let people push me around.

My table manners at home are as good as when I eat out in a restaurant.

I have a low opinion of myself.

When I put my mind to something, I almost always succeed.

I am an independent person.

No matter who I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener.

There are very few things that I can honestly say I am good at.

I'm not good at influencing people.

I lack firm guiding principles.

There have been times when I have intensely disliked someone.

I feel that I am a physically attractive person.

I am very sensitive to disapproval.

Self-control is no problem for me.

I would rather win than lose in a game.

In general, I have a high opinion of myself.

I am not a nice person.

I often feel worn out for no apparent reason.

I have almost never felt the urge to tell someone off.

I am not a capable person.

I have at least as much self-control as most people.

I am not very good at getting people to do as I wish.

Most people like me.

There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others.

I let too many people take advantage of me.

I like myself.

My inability to resist temptation is a source of concern for me.

I have sometimes felt resentful about not getting my way.

I sometimes worry about losing control of myself.

I have a firm sense of what is right and wrong, and act accordingly.

I feel that I am a person of worth.

I have sometimes felt like getting even, rather than forgiving and forgetting.

I'm an easy person to like.

I tend to be awkward in most physical activities.

I am lacking in will power.

I'm not a very likeable person.

I often feel incompetent or inadequate.

I generally have a sense of physical well-being.

I have sometimes been irritated by people asking favors of me.

Others often follow my lead.

There are people who love me very much.

I am often afraid to say what I think.

I always practice what I preach.

I think I am at least as good looking as most people.

Self discipline is a problem for me.

I feel good about myself, who I am, and what I'm like.

I'm always willing to admit it when I make a mistake.

I regard myself as basically a good and decent person.

Controlling my emotions is not a problem for me.

I become ill quite easily.

There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone.

I sometimes wish I were someone else.

I do not have a clear sense of values.

I have a lot of will power.

I am pleased with my sense of values.

If I were really to be myself, people wouldn't think well of me.

I often feel unattractive.

I succeed at most things I attempt.

People like being with me.

I am ashamed of my physical appearance.

I tend to have a strong influence on people.

I have a firm set of values.

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Appendix B: Epstein Self-Report Inventory Part Ii · 721 words

Self-Ratings of Attributes Rate yourself on the 10 attributes listed below by assigning values according to the graphic-rating scale. Enter your ratings on this form in the spaces provided at the left of the attributes. After inspecting the ratings to make sure you have made no careless errors, copy the ratings on the IBM sheet. A separate sheet with definitions of the attributes is provided. Read all the definitions before making any ratings, and refer back to them as necessary.

Scale: 1 (Very Much Below Average) / 2 (Below Average) / 3 (Average) / 4 (Above Average) / 5 (Very Much Above Average)

Competence

Likeability

Lovability

Will Power

Influence Over Others

Autonomy

Morality

Physical Attractiveness

Physical Ability
Body Health

Ideal-Ratings of Attributes Indicate how you would ideally like the 10 attributes listed below to be distributed for you. Select the one attribute that you would like to be highest on, and enter its item-number under 5 on the graphic rating scale below. Select the one attribute that is least important for you to be high on and enter its item-number under 1. Proceed in this manner until you have listed item-numbers for all of the attributes in the spaces under the rating scale. Most people find it easiest to work from the ends toward the middle. Check to see that you have used 5 for Highest and 1 for lowest, and that the item-numbers correspond to the correct attributes! Then transcribe the ratings to the IBM sheet. (Assume that you would be at least average on your lowest attribute.)

Scale: 1 (Lowest - 1 item) / 2 (Next to Lowest - 2 items) / 3 (Middlemost - 4 items) / 4 (Next to Highest - 2 items) / 5 (Highest - 1 item)

Competence

Likeability

Lovability

Will Power

Influence Over Others

Autonomy

Morality

Physical Attractiveness

Physical Ability
Body Health

Definitions of Attributes

Competence: High competence is indicated by an ability to solve problems well, to learn new things quickly, to get things done effectively, to understand difficult issues, and, in general, to be successful in your undertakings.

Likability: High likability is indicated by people tending to be fond of you, by their seeking out your company and enjoying spending time with you, by people registering pleasure when they see you, and, in general, by many people liking you.

Lovability: High lovability is indicated by people you care for forming deep and intense attachments to you, and by either now being loved by someone important to you, or by being confident that someday you will be very much loved by someone important to you.

Will Power: High will power is indicated by an ability to control your emotions, to stay with a task until it is completed, to make yourself do what you know is best, and, in general, by being able to exert self-discipline and self-control as necessary.

Influence Over Others: High influence over others is indicated by an ability to make others accept your views, by being able to forcefully and convincingly present your opinions, by being able to exert leadership, and, in general, by being able to get others to do as you wish.

Autonomy: High autonomy is indicated by independence of mind, by the ability to resist influence from others, and by being able to maintain a position against pressure from others.

Morality: High morality is indicated by being a highly ethical person; by having a clear sense of right and wrong, and acting accordingly; by being respected by others for your honesty and sense of justice; by considering the rights of others, and, in general, by being a decent human being in all ways.

Physical Attractiveness: High physical attractiveness is indicated by having an attractive face and body, by having people attracted to you because of your physical appearance, and by being pleased, yourself, with your appearance.

Physical Ability: High physical ability is indicated by being well coordinated, by performing well in physical activities such as dancing or sports, and by having a body that is energetic and that you are confident will perform well in almost all physical activities that you attempt.

Body Health: High body health is indicated by a feeling of physical well-being, and by having a strong and healthy body that is resistant to illness, and one that rarely produces discomfort without good reason.

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Appendix C: Scoring Key For Self-Report Inventory · 1,135 words

General Self-Esteem

GEN SE+

All in all, I'm quite satisfied with who I am.

In general, I have a high opinion of myself.

I like myself.

I feel that I am a person of worth.
I feel good about myself, who I am, and what I'm like.

GEN SE-
I am a great big nobody.

I have little respect for myself.
I have a low opinion of myself.

I sometimes wish I were someone else.
If I were really to be myself, people wouldn't think well of me.

Power Over Self (Self-Control)

POS+
My emotions rarely get out of hand.

Self-control is no problem for me.
I have at least as much self-control as most people.

Controlling my emotions is not a problem for me.
I have a lot of will power.

POS-
I am bothered by my lack of self-control.
My inability to resist temptation is a source of concern for me.

I sometimes worry about losing control of myself.
I am lacking in will power.

Self discipline is a problem for me.

Power Over Others

POO+

I am not easily dominated by others.

I do not let people push me around.

I am an independent person.

Others often follow my lead.

I tend to have a strong influence on people.

POO-

I give in to others too easily.

I'm not good at influencing people.

I am not very good at getting people to do as I wish.

I let too many people take advantage of me.
I am often afraid to say what I think.

Likeability

LIK+

I have (or am confident that someday I will have) a close, warm relationship to someone who understands me.

Most people like me.

I'm an easy person to like.

There are people who love me very much.

People like being with me.

LIK-

I sometimes doubt that anyone who really mattered to me could love me the way I am.
No one loves or cares about me.

I tend to assume that people will not like me.
I am very sensitive to disapproval.

I'm not a very likeable person.

Competence

COMP+
I am quick to learn new things.
I can handle almost any important problem I am faced with.

I am a capable person.

When I put my mind to something, I almost always succeed.

I succeed at most things I attempt.

COMP-

I have an inferiority complex.

I feel as if nothing I do is very good.

There are very few things that I can honestly say I am good at.

I am not a capable person.

I often feel incompetent or inadequate.

Morality

M+

I regard myself as a highly ethical person.
I have a firm sense of what is right and wrong, and act accordingly.

I regard myself as basically a good and decent person.

I am pleased with my sense of values.

M-

I frequently do things that I later feel guilty about.

My values need straightening out.

I lack firm guiding principles.

I am not a nice person.

I do not have a clear sense of values.

Body Image

BI+ (Health)
I have been endowed with a strong and healthy body.

In general, I don't have to worry about my health.
I generally have a sense of physical well-being.

BI- (Health)

I get physically run down easily.
I often worry about my physical health.

I become ill quite easily.

BI+ (Functioning)

I am well coordinated physically.

I have more physical endurance than most.

I tend to be good at physical activities, such as dancing or sports.

BI- (Functioning)

I am not a well-coordinated person.

I often feel worn out for no apparent reason.

I tend to be awkward in most physical activities.

BI+ (Appearance)

I like the way I look.
I feel that I am a physically attractive person.

I think I am at least as good looking as most people.

BI- (Appearance)

I do not like the way I look.

I often feel unattractive.

I am ashamed of my physical appearance.

Defensiveness Scale

DS+

I have always been courteous, even to people who have been disagreeable to me.

I have never minded admitting that I don't know something.
I have never felt that I was punished without cause.

I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own.
I have never felt like saying something that would hurt someone's feelings.
My table manners at home are as good as when I eat out in a restaurant.
No matter who I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener.

I have almost never felt the urge to tell someone off.
I always practice what I preach.
I'm always willing to admit it when I make a mistake.

DS-

I sometimes say things that are not completely true.

I have gossiped at times.

At elections I have sometimes voted for people about whom I know very little.

There have been times when I have intensely disliked someone.

I would rather win than lose in a game.

There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others.

I have sometimes felt resentful about not getting my way.

I have sometimes felt like getting even, rather than forgiving and forgetting.
I have sometimes been irritated by people asking favors of me.

There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone.

Item Pairs for Internal Consistency

My emotions rarely get out of hand. & 86. Controlling my emotions is not a problem for me.

I am well coordinated physically. & 33. I tend to be good at physical activities, such as dancing or sports.

I do not like the way I look. & 94. I often feel unattractive.

I like the way I look. & 49. I feel that I am a physically attractive person.

I feel as if nothing I do is very good. & 74. I often feel incompetent or inadequate.

I have little respect for myself. & 41. I have a low opinion of myself.

My values need straightening out. & 90. I do not have a clear sense of values.

I'm not good at influencing people. & 59. I am not very good at getting people to do as I wish.

Self-control is no problem for me. & 58. I have at least as much self-control as most people.

In general, I have a high opinion of myself. & 83. I feel good about myself, who I am, and what I'm like.

Most people like me. & 70. I'm an easy person to like.

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